Ayurveda

Ayurveda or Ayurvedic medicine is a form of alternative medicine in use primarily in the Indian subcontinent. The word "Ayurveda" is a tatpurusha compound of āyus "long life" and veda "knowledge", and would roughly translate as the "Science of a long Life". Ayurveda is claimed to deal with the measures of healthy living, along with therapeutic measures that relate to physical, mental, social and spiritual harmony. Ayurveda is also one among the few traditional systems of medicine involving surgery.

Ayurveda was first described by Agnivesha, in his book Agnivesh tantra. The book was later revised by Charaka, and renamed to Charaka Samhitā. Another early text of Ayurveda is the Sushruta Samhitā, which in addition to the Charaka Samhitā, served as the textual material in the ancient Universities of Takshashila and Nalanda. These texts are believed to have been written around the beginning of the Common Era, and is based on a holistic approach rooted in earlier Vedic culture. Its conspicuous use of the word veda, or knowledge, reveals its role in early Hinduism and explains its popularity in India. The origin of Ayurvedic medical sciences is claimed to come from a divine revelation from Lord Brahma..

History

Documented references to the precise timing of the origins of Ayurveda are not available. The age of Ayurveda has been established on the basis of correlating the evidence with other disciplines as well as circumstantial evidence. Ayurveda is said to have been first complied as a text by Agnivesha, in his book Agnivesh tantra, which was written during Vedic times. The book was later revised by Charaka, and renamed to Charaka Samhitā (encyclopedia of the physician Charaka). Other early texts of Ayurveda include the Charaka Samhitā and the Sushruta Samhitā The system was orally transferred via the Gurukul system until a script came into existence.

The earliest scripts would have been written on perishable materials such as Taalpatra and Bhojapatra, which could not be readily preserved. The script was later written on stone and copper sheets. Verses dealing with Ayurveda are included in the Atharvaveda, which implies that some form of Ayurveda is as old as the Vedas. Ayurvedic practices have also evolved over time, and some practices may be considered innovations upon earlier Vedic practices, such as the advances made during the Buddhist period in India.

Hinduism attributes the genesis of Ayurveda to several theories in which the knowledge is believed to have been passed on from being to being, initially, through its realization by the divine sages, and gradually into the human sphere by a complex system of mnemonics. Details of Ayurvedic traditions vary between writers, as is expected when oral traditions are transcribed from multiple sources. The earliest authors of Ayurvedic manuscripts recorded divergent forms of the tradition.

The Great Medical Conference

The Charaka Samhitā begins with a description of a large and well-attended medical conference of veteran Rishis and Munis (sages) that was held under the chairmanship of Bharadwaja in the valley of the Himalayas. The description is atributed to Atreya Punarvasu, one of the devoted students of Bharadwaja. He tells us that the main aim of this conference was to share medical knowledge and to encourage the attending scholars to compile the medical knowledge gained by different peoples of the region, knowledge which had been passed down, mostly orally, from generation to generation. This stream of Ayurvedic medical knowledge was considered eternal, because it was known by them to have been there since the beginning of time. However, the participants also knew that there were no authentic and complete texts of Ayurveda available for study. For this reason the writing of texts became the focus of the conference.

This historic conference was a milestone in the history of medicine. The task of compiling the medical knowledge was very difficult, because many scholars who knew various aspects of Ayurvedic medicine lived and worked throughout different parts of the Eastern world. Travel and communication in those days was very difficult. Nonetheless, the participants of the conference overcame these difficulties. They arrived from many distant points and stayed together for a long period of time. The conference is estimated to have lasted about three years. The participants engaged in long and complex discussions and debates, and formed committees to compile full texts about the different subjects of Ayurveda. The attending scholars produced all the Charaka Samhita, the text of internal medicine, the Susruta Samhita, the text of surgery, and the Kashyapa Samhita, the text of pediatrics, and many others.

Development

The Eight Armed Ayurveda

Ayurveda was formally organized into eight sections or branches called Astanga (eight-armed) Ayurveda. A founding sage was chosen at the founding medical conference to head a committee on each branch and to write the defining text. All the texts were written in Sanskrit, the language of the Aryans. This formed the basis for the different schools and traditions that evolved over the ensuing centuries. The names of the chairman from each branch are known, but many of the texts were lost and only available as a result of references from existing texts.

The eight branches of Ayurveda are:

1. Internal medicine - Kayachikitsa Tantra
2. Surgery - Shalya Tantra
3. Ears, eyes, nose and throat - Shalakya Tantra
4. Pediatrics - Kaumarabhritya Tantra
5. Toxicology - Agada Tantra
6. Purification of the genetic organs - Bajikarana Tantra
7. Health and Longevity - Rasayana Tantra
8. Spiritual Healing - Bhuta Vidya

Internal Medicine

Kayachikitsa Tantra is the Ayurvedic branch that deals with internal medicine treatment (chikitsa). Common internal diseases such as fever, diarrhea, tuberculosis etc. are found here. Adherents claim that this is the most well developed branch of Ayurveda. Lord Atreya Punarvasu founded the school of internal medicines. Lord Atreya lived in the area of Punchanada, the area of Punjab, India. As a student of Bharadwaja, he is believed to have lived about seven hundred years BC. He had six devoted and advanced disciples called Agnivesha, Bheda, Jatukarna, Parasara, Harita and Ksarapani. Lord Atreya encouraged each of them to write unique books about internal medicine. As a result of this command, they each wrote a book entitled according to their personal name, including the Agnivesha Samhita, the Bheda Samhita, and the Harita Samhita etc. Of these, the Agnivesha Samhita was judged by the doctors of the time to be the best, most authentic and most complete text of internal medicine. As a result, it was handed down through the centuries. All the original copies have been lost, but Charaka, a famous Ayurvedic scholar who lived circa 1st century AD, renovated this book from an original. The other texts written by the disciples of Atreya Punarvasu, except for the much smaller Harita Samhita, have never been found.

Lord Atreya's school of internal medicine continues to the present day, and remains the basis of the traditions of the Ayurvedic physicians of Nepal, India, Pakistan etc. Throughout the centuries, there have been many famous Ayurvedic scholar physicians who have preserved the unique knowledge of Ayurveda as well as contributing what advocates claims are new understandings of disease treatment. Centuries have passed, but it is claimed the basic principles of Ayurvedic internal medicine have not changed while the methods and treatments have continued to evolve.

Surgery

Shalya Tantra is defined as the section of Ayurvedic surgery. The school of surgery was founded and run by Dhanwantari Divodasa. A contemporary of Atreya Punarvasu, he was the king of Kashi, a section of Banarasa, India. He had many devoted disciples. Some of the ones whose names are known include Susruta, Aupadhenava, Vaitarana, Aurabhra, Puskalavati, Karavirya and Gopurakshita. As with the students of Lord Atreya, they all were asked to write unique texts on surgery. Their texts are known by their names such as Susruta Samhita, Aupadhenava Samhita etc. All these texts except the Susruta Samhita were lost.

Susruta was a son of Kaushika, and lived in the area of Koshi River, Nepal. The text of Susruta is considered the best, most authentic and most complete book of Ayurvedic surgery. In addition, the Susruta Samhita presents in detail the entire fundamental principles and subjects of Ayurveda. In fact, the Susruta Samhita is the only original book dating from the great conference that talks in detail about the eight sections of Ayurveda. Nagarjuna, a famous surgeon of the 1st century AD, renovated the Susruta Samhita.

The surgical school of Divodasa is no longer flourishing. The practice of surgery today is limited only to minor operations such as the lancing of boils, handled by the few holistic (general practice) Ayurvedic physicians. In the history of Ayurveda, during the medieval period, the physicians (Vaidyas) could be called holistic or general practice healers because they were trained in all the different subjects of Ayurveda. Such general medical training is of benefit for common people or village doctors. But in practice, such training without the support of specialists was counterproductive. For example, the ancient Ayurvedic knowledge of surgery was well developed in the time of the Rishis and Munis, and was prestigious and well known throughout the ancient world. The medieval healers, however, did not preserve nor develop this tradition, because they had little time to study and practice surgery with all its complex knowledge and specialized manual skills.

Ears, Eyes, Nose and Throat

Shalakya Tantra is defined as the Ayurvedic division of otorhinolaryngology (ENT) and ophthalmology, dealing with the diseases of the eyes, ears, nose, mouth and throat. Eye specialist Videhadhipati Janaka, the King of Videha, ran the ancient school of Shalakya Tantra. Videha was located within what is now known as the district of Janakapura in Nepal. Janaka, like the scholars heading each of the other schools, was charged with compiling the practical knowledge gained by different physicians of his era in his field of Shalakya Tantra. He wrote the first authentic textbook in the field, the Videha Tantra. This text was lost. However, the physician Susruta, his well-known contemporary and the head of the surgical school, quoted sections of the Videha Tantra in detail in his classic Susruta Samhita, devoting an entire section to the Shalakya Tantra.

In the years following the origin of the school of Videhadhipati, numerous scholars--Janaka, Nimi, Kankayana, Gargya, Shataki, Saunaka, and Chakshusya, among others-- contributed their unique knowledge to this field of disease. Their original commentaries and books are not available, having also been lost. Our knowledge of them comes from existing references to their books. One of the most important sources is the Madhava Nidana, written by Madhava in the 13th Century. Atankadarpana by Sri Kanthadatta in the 15th century also contains many commentaries. This Ayurvedic section has not developed. A few of its practices are still practiced by general practitioners who have limited knowledge.

Pediatrics

Kaumarabhritya Tantra is defined as the Ayurvedic section of pediatrics, dealing with children's health and children's diseases. The school of pediatrics was founded and run by Maricha Kashyapa, the contemporary of Atreya Punarvasu. He lived in Gangadwara in the area of Haridwara, India. He had many disciples, Vriddha Jivaka being one of them. The original text of Vriddha Jivaka written under the guidance of Maricha Kashyapa is called Kashyapa Samhita or Vriddha Jivaka Tantra. It was lost, but Vatsya, a famous pediatrician of 5th century A.D, renovated this text from an original, so it is now available. In this school, the names of Parvataka, Bandhaka, and Hiranyaksa are known as important specialists and writers. Their texts are not available, but references to their texts are found in different commentaries.

The school of pediatrics has been preserved in the tradition of Buddhist physicians of Nepal, who are well known as the spiritual healers. Advocates of this school of ajurveda assert that all diseases of children have to be treated with the basic theory of spiritual healing that is based upon religious practices.

Toxicology

Agada Tantra is defined as a section of toxicology; practitioners claim to be able to deal with food poisoning, snakebites, dog bites, insect bites etc. The school of toxicology was founded and run by Kashyapa, also known as Vriddhakashyapa, another contemporary of Atreya Punarvasu. He lived in Taksashila, Pakistan. His text was called the Kashyapa Samhita. This, however, is a different book than the Kashyapa Samhita of pediatrics. This text is not available now but the references of this text are found mentioned in different commentaries. Some other texts written by Alambayana, Ushana, Saunaka, and Latyayana were known to exist. However except for references to them, the original texts are no longer available.

The traditional practice of toxicology is still practiced by different families of Vishavaidyas (poison doctors) who claim to be specialists in toxicology. In fact, their knowledge is quite limited (especially compared to the knowledge attributed to earlier ayurvedic physicians) but villages still use these practices to attempt to deal with poisonous bites. In ancient times, it was the job of Vishavaidyas to protect members of the royal families from being poisoned, as well to poison enemies of the kings.

Purification of the Semen and Uterus

Advocates argue that Bajikarana Tantra is the science of purification of male and female genetic organs. The main aim of this science is to provide knowledge about sex, and to determine and teach techniques and practices that are important to produce healthy children. The study and practice of this subject has no specific text or school of specialists, and is included as a part of Ayurvedic internal medicine training. The knowledge gained in this field historically has always been presented in the texts of internal medicine. For example the special chapter of Bajikarana Tantra included in Charaka Samhita is claimed to be very worthwhile, as is the knowledge found in the texts of Susruta, Bagbhata (Vagbhata) and others.

Good Health and Longevity

Avocates define Rasayana Tantra as the science of practices promoting long life and good health. It claims todeals with the problems of untimely old age and poor immunity. As with semen and uterus purification, this subject is not located in any specific text or tradition of specialists. The unique knowledge gained by Rishis and Munis in this field, in general, is recorded in the texts of internal medicine. The present prestige and success of Ayurvedic internal medicine is largely dependent upon the successes of Rasayana Tantra medical practices.

In the medieval period, there were many renowned Siddhas who claimed to have the power to control death. In general, the Siddhas were not doctors, but religious philosophers and practitioners, of whom most were less advanced spiritually than the legendary Rishis and Munis. They were interested in immortality, and so were drawn to the Rasayana Tantra. As a result of their interest and investigations, Ayurvedic "alchemy" developed, primarily using purified heavy metals combined with other unique and often very potent medicinal substances. The Siddhas brought to light many new recipes for rejuvenation, and caused a revolution in the Ayurvedic theory of treatment.

Because many of the alchemical medicines are poisonous in their pure form, they are often illegal outside India and Nepal. Ayurvedic physicians maintain that their purification methods remove all toxicity, but this has not been confirmed by modern science. Because of this, the importation and use of many Ayurvedic medicines into Europe, America or other developed areas of the world is controversial and sometimes legally prohibited. Heavy metal contamination with mercury, lead etc has been documented, as well as cases of poisioning from ayurvedic remedies, and remains a major concern.

Ayurvedic alchemy is divided into two schools, the Hindu school and the Buddhist school. The head of Hindu school was the physician Adinatha Siddha and the head of Buddhist school was the physician Nagarjuna. In their lineage are listed the names of many famous Siddhas who contributed to the development of alchemical medicines.

Spiritual Healing

Bhuta Vidya is asserted to be a science of spiritual healing. It claims to deal primarily with the mental diseases, children's diseases, and diseases which do not follow the basic Ayurvedic theory of Tridosha balance. This subject does not have a specific text. Rather it is directly linked with the Atharva Veda and other religious texts. The theory of spiritual healing, in general, is based upon chanting or sound therapy, called Mantra in Sanskrit. Mantras are composed using specific vowels and consonants. Hindu and Buddhist religious practitioners believe that the repetition of mantras links them with deities, and yields supernatural powers which can be used to cure many diseases. Almost all religious texts contain many different Mantras composed by Rishis, Munis and Siddhas. The priests of different eastern religious sects during special ceremonies transmit the Mantras to their devoted disciples. This tradition of using religious ceremonies to transmit the Mantras still exists with the families of priests. In one sense, the practice of spiritual healing connected to the activities of priestly lineage has never broken its ancient spiritual connections. The traditional priest families of Nepal, India etc. still claim to have good reputations for their skills as spiritual healers.

Ayurvedic practice was flourishing during the time of Buddha (around 520 BC) , and in this period the Ayurvedic practitioners were commonly using Mercuric-sulphur combination based medicines. In this period Mercury, sulphur and other metals were used in conjunction with herbs to prepare the different medications. An important Ayurvedic practitioner of this period was Nagarjuna, a Buddhist herbologist, famous for inventing various new drugs for the treatment of ailments. Nagarjuna was accompanied by Surananda, Nagbodhi, Yashodhana, Nityanatha, Govinda, Anantdev, Vagbhatta etc. The knowledge of Ayurveda progressed a lot during this period, including development of newer and more effective medicines, and is therefore termed as the Golden Period of Ayurveda.

After emerging victorious at the Kalinga War, Emperor Ashoka (304 BC-232 BC) influenced by the Buddhist teachings, banned any bloodshed in his kingdom in 250 BC. Therefore many Ayurveda practitioners, who were practicing surgery along with medicine, left the surgical intervention and adopted totally new medicinal treatments. In this period, Ayurveda again evolved and flourished with the invention of new drugs, new methodology and new innovations. The practice of the accompanying surgery slowly died out during this period.

During the regime of Chandragupta Maurya (375-415 AD), Ayurveda was part of mainstream Indian medical techniques, and continued to be so until the invasion of Alexander, the Mughals and the English.

Chakrapani Dutta (DuttaSharma) was a Vaid Brahman of Bengal who wrote books on Ayurveda such as "Chakradutta" and others. Chakrapani Dutta was the Rajabaidya of King Nayapala (1038 - 1055). It is believed by some practitioners that Chakradutta is the essence of Ayurveda.

Ayurveda has always been preserved by the people of India as a traditional "science of life", despite increasing adoption of European medical techniques during the time of British rule. For several decades the reputation and skills of the various Ayurvedic schools declined markedly as Western medicine and Western-style hospitals were built. However, beginning in the 1970's, a gradual recognition of value of Ayurveda returned, and today Ayurvedic hospitals and practitioners are flourishing throughout all of India. As well, the production and marketing of Ayurvedic herbal medicines has dramatically increased, as well as scientific documentation of benefits. Today, Ayurvedic medicines are available throughout the world.

Gurukul system of Ayurveda

In the earlier days of its conception, the system of Ayurvedic medicine was orally transferred via the Gurukul system until a written script came into existence.

In this system, the Guru gave a solemn address where he directed the students to a life of chastity, honesty, and vegetarianism. The student was to strive with all his being to heal the sick. He was not to betray patients for his own advantage. He was required to dress modestly and avoid alcohol or drugs. He was to be collected and self-controlled, measured in speech at all times. He was to constantly improve his knowledge and technical skill. At the patient's home, he was to be courteous and modest, directing all attention to the patient's welfare. He was not to divulge any knowledge about the patient and his family. If the patient was incurable, he was to keep this to himself if it was likely to harm the patient or others.

The normal length of the student's training appears to have been seven years. Before graduation, the student was to pass a test. But the physician was to continue to learn through texts, direct observation (pratyaksha), and through inference (anumāna). In addition, the vaidyas attended meetings where knowledge was exchanged. The practitioners also gained knowledge of unusual remedies from laypeople who were outside the Ayurvedic community such as hillsmen, herdsmen, and forest-dwellers.

Traditions of Ayurveda

Three traditions of Ayurveda exist today — two of them based on the compendia of Charka and Sushruta Samhitās, and a third tradition known as Kāshyapas. However, Ayurvedic remedies prior to these traditions also exist, as mentioned in the earlier Vedic literature (2nd millennium BC). Both the Sushruta and the Charaka Samhitās are the product of several scholars, having been revised and supplemented over a period of several hundred years. The scholar Vāgbhata, who lived in Sindh at the beginning of the 7th century AD, wrote a synthesis of earlier Ayurvedic materials in a collection of verses called the Ashtānga Hridayam. Another work associated with the same author, the Ashtānga Samgraha, contains much of the same material in a more diffuse form, written in a mixture of prose and verse. The relationship between these two works, and a third intermediate compilation, is still a topic of active research. The works of Charaka, Sushruta, and Vāgbhata are considered canonical and reverentially called the Vriddha Trayi, "The Triad of Ancients"; or Brhat Trayi, "The Greater Triad." In the early 8th century, Mādhav wrote his Nidāna, a work on etiology, which soon assumed a position of authority. In the 79 chapters of this book, he lists diseases along with their causes, symptoms, and complications.

Post Brhat Trayi period

The Brhat Trayi (literally "the three great compositions") is a classic Ayurvedic literary work, which was composed, compiled, and edited by Vagbhatta II, under the title Ashtānga Samgraha. At one time, it was believed that those who read and fully understood the contents of Vriddha Trayi and the Brhat Trayi, were good practitioners of Ayurveda. Legends concerning the origins of the text refer to the Ayurvedic practitioner Vāgbhata who lived during the time of the epic Mahabharata and was the chief physician of king Yudhisthir. Most believe that the author of the Ashtānga Samgraha was born before 200 AD and is properly known as Vāgbhata the 1st. Another man named Vāgbhata (who was born about 100 BC) recomposed the text, including the writings of Charaka, Sushruta under a new title Astang Hridaya.

Mythology also refers to another Ayurvedic physician known as Vangsen. Myths place him in ancient Bengal where he wrote a classic Ayurvedic book, simply called Vangsen. The book is written in easy and understandable language and adds many new chapters to the previous texts.

After Vangsen, a scholar by the name of Madhavacharya composed the book, Madhav Nidan. He is thought to have been the prime minister for the Emperor of Vijaynagara. Madhav Nidan is widely considered the best Ayurvedic book for the diagnosis of some diseases known during that period.

After Madhav Nidan, the next in line of famous Ayurvedic books Bhav Prakash was written during the time that the Portuguese first came to India in 1498 by a man named Bhav Mishra of Madras. The period in which he wrote can be pinpointed accurately because in the Bhav Prakash, he described the symptoms of a disease called "Firang" (Gonorrhoea and Syphilis), which was introduced to the subcontinent through contact with Europeans. ("Firangi" was a Persian-derived pejorative for Europeans in India, who brought the diseases with them). Bhav Mishra's other contribution to Ayurvedic medicine was the introduction of pulse examination / pulse diagnosis.

Many writers after Bhav Mishra contributed to Ayurvedic literature. Among them Sharangdhar, Chakra Dutta, Vaidya Vinod, Vaidya Vamanotsava, Bhaisajya Ratnawali, and the Lolimb Raj, who wrote the Vaidya Jeevan in verse form. The first lines of the verses of the Vaidya Jeevan are addressed to the author's "beloved", while the rest of the verse has contains information about curing diseases.

About 200 years ago, Pranacharya Shri Sadanand Sharma wrote the Ras Tarangini, which was the "base book" for modernizing Ayurveda practices. In this book, advances in chemistry are included. The book describes the use of many chemical substances as medicine and their successful uses. Upon considering the advice of this book, Ayurvedic practitioners began to process the traditional herbs in sulphate, nitrate, muriate, phosphate and nitromuriate forms. Sarpagandha [Latin: Rauwolfia Serpentina] Muriate, Sarpagandha Sulphate, Sarpagandha Phosphate, Sarpagandha Nitrate, Sarpagandha nitromuriate and many others have been prepared and tested on patients.The Ras Tarangini mentions "Shankhadrav", which is a medicine used internally and externally in many disease conditions. Shankhadrav-based herbal medicine, invented by an Indian physician, is regarded by the National Innovation Foundation, Ahmedabad, India.

Medications

Ayurveda operates on the precept that various materials of vegetable, animal, and mineral origin have some medicinal value. The medicinal properties of these materials have been documented by the practitioners and have been used for centuries to cure illness and/or help maintain good health. Ayurvedic medicaments are made from herbs or mixtures of herbs, either alone or in combination with minerals, metals and other ingredients of animal origin. The metals, animals and minerals are purified by individual processes before being used for medicinal purposes.

Writers and compilers of Ayurvedic literature such as Charaka, Sushruta, Vagabhatta, Bhav Mishra, Shaligram and others have written about the qualities, characteristics and medicinal uses of the herbs, mineral, metals, chemicals, animal parts, cooked food articles, natural foods, fruits etc. Among them, the Bhav Prakash Nighantu, written by Bhav Mishra, is known for its detail .The composition of the Nighantu part (Ayurvedic Materia Medica) of the Bhav Prakash is part of the classical book. The details of the medicinal herbs are given according to the nature, effects, and curative properties as observed by the Ayurvedic practitioners.

Ayurvedic literature has been written by several authors in languages such as Sanskrit, Hindi, and more recently, in English.The Shaligram Nighantu was written in Sanskrit.The Banaushadhi Chandrodaya was written in Hindi.The Indian Materia Medica was written in English.

Ayurvedic Massage

Ayurvedic massage is a form of treatment for various age related and other common disorders. Some of the advantages which can be cited are pain relief, improved circulation, stress relief, better sleep, flexibilty, athletic perfomance and emotional benefits. Massage therapy can soothe pain, relax stiff muscles, and reduce the swelling that accompanies arthritis. Advocates claim that, with ayurvedic massage, deep-seated toxins in the joints and tissues are loosened and released into the system for elimination through natural toxin-release processes.

Current Status

In the early 20th century, Ayurvedic physicians began to organize into professional associations and to promote their case for national recognition and funding. This began to become a reality after Indian independence in 1947.

Use in personal care

Ayurveda is also being increasingly used in modern day formats in personal care. For instance, Medimix, a traditionally handmade soap using ayurvedic principles is one of the leading soap brands in India . In certain states in India, Charak Samhita and Sushruta Samhita are included in the curriculum of modern medical courses (M.B.B.S).

Modern scientific research

The efficacy of certain Ayurvedic regimens, such as the Panchakarma, Kshar Sutra and the Triphala herbs, has been established by medical research . Some of the plants commonly used in Ayurveda have been shown to potentially combat certain ailments in double-blind clinical studies . One study (although this is as yet unpublished, and it is not clear whether blinding was used) appears to show that some of the plants commonly used in ayurvedic medicine prevent the breakdown of neurotransmitters, improving memory and concentration in people with Alzheimer's disease.

The traditional methods of teaching Ayurveda, such as undergoing a rigorous study of Sanskrit, are now discarded . Ayurveda is now taught as an integrated course with modern medical sciences and Ayurvedic sciences. These integrated degree-level courses consist of a duration of five and a half years i.e. B.A.M.S. (Bachelor of Ayurvedic Medicine and Surgery), with one additional year of internship in hospital. Standard medical science subjects are taught along with Ayurvedic subjects i.e. Maulik Siddhant, Materia Medica, Kayachikitsa etc. in Ayurvedic medical colleges.

Ayurvedic institutions and practitioners

Ayurvedic practitioners have been appointed as Honorary Ayurvedic Physician to the President of India. Every year on the occasion of Dhanvantari jayanti, a prestigious Dhanvantari Award is conferred on a famous personality of Medical Sciences including Ayurveda. Today, Kerala is one of the states in India that promotes research and practices of Ayurveda. This has been attributed to its well established Ayurveda centers and Ayurveda pharmaceutical companies, as also the presence of medicinal herbs and plants on the Western Ghats mountain range that runs through the state. There are many Ayurvedic centers (known as Vaidya shalas) all over Kerala.

Practice in the west

As a result of strong regulations in medical practice in Europe and America, the most commonly practiced Ayurvedic treatments in the west are massage, dietary and herbal advice.

In the United States, the National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine (established by Scott Gerson) is an example of a research institute that has carried out research into Ayurvedic practices. Gerson has published part of his work on the antifungal activities of certain Ayurvedic plants in medical journals.

Several Pharmecutical companies and Academic Institutions in the west have come into conflict with Indian academic institutions and traditional Ayurvedic practitioners over the intellectual property rights of herbal products researched by the western agencies. The Ayurvedic practitioners have known about the efficacy of such products for centuries and so contend that they carry precedence with regards to patent rights on such products.

On December 1993, the University of Mississippi Medical Center had a patent issued to them by U.S patents and trademarks office on the use of turmeric (U.S. patent No. 5,401,504) for healing. The patent was contested by India's "Council for Scientific and Industrial Research" (C.S.I.R) on the grounds that traditional Ayurvedic practitioners were already aware of the healing properties of the substance and have been for centuries, making this patent a case of bio-piracy.

After a complex legal battle, the U.S. Patents and Trademarks Office ruled on August 14, 1997 that the patent was invalid because it was not a novel invention, giving the intellectual property rights to the principle back to the traditional practitioners of Ayurveda. R. A. Mashelkar, director-general of the CSIR, was satisfied with the result, saying:

"This success will enhance the confidence of the people and help remove fears about India's helplessness on preventing bio-piracy and appropriation of inventions based on traditional knowledge"

The turmeric patent was just one of the hundreds that the several academic organizations and Pharmecutical companies in the west have claimed by ignoring Ayurvedic knowledge. Vandana Shiva, a global campaigner for a fair and honest Intellectual Property Rights system, says patents on herbal products derived from Neem, Amla, Jar Amla, Anar, Salai, Dudhi, Gulmendhi, Bagbherenda, Karela, Erand, Rangoon-kibel, Vilayetishisham and Chamkura also need to be revoked.

Seven American and four Japanese firms have filed for grant of patents on formulations containing extracts of the herb Ashwagandha. Fruits, leaves and seeds of the Indian medicinal plant withania somnifera have been traditionally used for the Ayurvedic system as aphrodisiacs, diuretics and for treating memory loss. The Japanese patent applications are related to the use of the herb as a skin ointment and for promoting reproductive fertility. The U.S based company Natreon has also obtained a patent for an Ashwagandha extract. Another US establishment, the New England Deaconess Hospital, has taken a patent on an Ashwagandha formulation claimed to alleviate symptoms associated with arthritis. It is clear that the Ashwagandha plant is catching the attention of scientists and more patents related to Ashwagandha are being filed or granted by different patent offices since 1996.

Scientific Criticism of Ayurveda

Ayurveda claims that illness and disease are a result of imbalance in the doshas, which contradicts modern science's understanding of disease in terms of pathogens, infectious agents and genetic disorders. However, many Ayurvedic schools and institutions, including ones funded by the Government of India, have abandoned the traditional holistic philosophy of Ayurveda and are using modern methods to research the efficacy of traditional Ayurvedic medicines .

Scientific studies and standards

Critics object to the lack of rigorous scientific studies and clinical trials of many ayurvedic products (although see Research and innovations in Ayurveda for details of the evidence which is available). The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine states that "most clinical trials of Ayurvedic approaches have been small, had problems with research designs, lacked appropriate control groups, or had other issues that affected how meaningful the results were."

In India, scientific research in Ayurveda is largely undertaken by the statutory body of the Federal Government, the Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS), through a national network of research institutes. A large number of non-governmental organisations are also conducting research work on different aspects of Ayurveda. However, "even staunch advocates of Ayurveda like cardiologist Dr. M.S. Valiathan...admit that 'clinical studies that would satisfy the liberal criteria of WHO World Health Organisation have been alarmingly few from India, in spite of patients crowding in Ayurvedic hospitals"'.

Safety concerns

There is evidence that using some ayurvedic medicine, especially those involving herbs, metals, minerals, or other materials involves potentially serious risks, including toxicity.

A research study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association found significant levels of toxic heavy metals such as lead, mercury and arsenic in 20% of Ayurvedic preparations that were made in South Asia for sale in America. The Journal found that, if taken according to the manufacturers' instructions, this 20% of remedies "could result in heavy metal intakes above published regulatory standards" Similar studies have been performed in India, and have confirmed these results. In response to the study, some practitioners of Ayurveda claimed that "heavy metals are integral to some formulations and have been used for centuries. There is no point of doing trials as they have been used safely and have mention in our ancient texts."

"Miracle Cures"

Some critics also question the safety of those Ayurvedic drugs that are said to provide "miraculous cures". They argue that simply following age-old Ayurvedic formulas is no guarantee of safety and the fundamental processes and concepts on which these ancient processes are based must be exposed to serious scientific scrutiny..However, attacks made against Ayurvedic practitioners such as Swami Ramdev by communist politicians such as Brinda Karat regarding these issues have sometimes been viewed as the politicized spread of misinformation . Such tactics have been condemned by a number of politicians and the practices have had their scientific validity attested to some degree.